Kau-Boys

You might now ask yourself: What?! That was also my first reaction, when I’ve heard about labeled statements. So what are they, and when can they be used?

Are they goto statements?

Many programming languages have goto statements. Some programming languages even only added them in later version, like PHP did with version 5.3, and this is how it would look like in PHP:

$array = [
	'one' => [ 1, 2, 3 ],
	'two' => [ 4, 5, 6 ],
];

foreach ( $array as $key => $numbers ) {
	foreach ( $numbers as $number ) {
		if ( $number === 4 ) {
			goto fourFound;
		}
	}
}

echo "There is no 4 in the array";
goto end;

fourFound:
printf( "There is a 4 in array '%s'", $key );

end:

In this example, we have two foreach loops. The code tries to and find a 4 in a two-dimensional array. As soon as a 4 is found, we can stop the loops and print the result. To leave the loop(s), this code is using a goto statement to “go to” line 17 to the label fourFound, where we print out the result. There is also a second goto at line 15, which would move to the end label. In any case, only one echo/printf function would be called.

Many experienced developers would see multiple ways to improve that code, but I hope it can demonstrate, how a goto in PHP (and many other languages work) works. But what are labeled statements in JavaScript? They are similar to the labels in PHP shown here, but there is no goto statement and those labels can only be used in combination with either the break or the continue keyword.

How to use continue and break in your code?

If you have a loop, you can break out of the loop, by using the break statement like this:

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6];

for (let i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {
	if (numbers[i] === 4) {
		console.log(`Found 4 at index ${i}`);
		break;
	}
}

This code would iterate through the numbers array, but as soon as it found the 4, it would “break out” of the array and not look at the other values.

The continue statement can be used to stop the current iteration and start with the next one. Like in this modified example:

for ( let i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++ ) {
	if ( numbers[i] % 2 !== 0 ) {
		continue;
	}
	if ( numbers[i] === 4 ) {
		console.log( `Found 4 at index ${i}` );
		break;
	}
}

In line 2, we check, if the current number is odd. If that’s the case, it can’t be the number 4 we are searching for. We then use the continue statement, to start with the next iteration, so the condition in line 5 would not be executed.

How to skip an “inner loop”?

Let’s take the first code example from PHP again and use the break statement instead of a goto statement:

$array = [
	'one' => [ 1, 2, 3 ],
	'two' => [ 4, 5, 6 ],
];

foreach ( $array as $key => $numbers ) {
	foreach ( $numbers as $number ) {
		if ( $number === 4 ) {
			break 2;
		}
	}
}

if ( $number === 4 ) {
	printf( "There is a 4 in array '%s'", $key );
} else {
	echo "There is no 4 in the array";
}

In PHP, you can use break 2 to not only exit the “inner loop”, but also the “outer loop”. So the number after break indicates how many “control structures” you want to break out from. Something similar is possible with continue 2, where the program would continue with the next iteration of the “outer loop”.

In JavaScript however, this is not possible. You cannot add any number after a break or continue statement. And that’s where labeled statements come into play.

Breaking out an inner loop in JavaScript

If we try to create the same code as above in JavaScript, we can use a labeled statement like in this code:

var array = {
	one: [1, 2, 3],
	two: [4, 5, 6],
};

outerLoop:
for ( var key in array ) {
	var numbers = array[key];
	for ( var i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++ ) {
		if ( numbers[i] === 4 ) {
			break outerLoop;
		}
	}
}

if ( numbers[i] === 4 ) {
	console.log( `there is a 4 in array ${key}'` );
} else {
	console.log( "There is no 4 in the array" );
}

The label does not need to be on its own line, it can also be in one line for the for loop. For better readability, I just formatted it like this.

If you prepend each loop with a label, you could also have use break statement to jump to any loop. The same is true for continue.

What should I use this for?

So should you use labeled statements? My advice would be similar to the one given by the xkcd comic on goto: Don’t use it!

If you end up writing some code that would profit from something like break 2, continue 2, or the JavaScript equivalent using a labeled statement, this would be a clear sign for me, that this piece of code should be refactored.

Instead of using a goto to jump out of a loop, put that loop inside a function and use return. And for nested loops, you can also use nested functions in loops.

There are plenty of things to optimize in the code above, not only the nested loops. With some modern JavaScript functions, it could look like this:

const array = {
	one: [1, 2, 3],
	two: [4, 5, 6],
};

function findTheFour(obj) {
	for (const property in obj) {
		if (obj[property].includes(4)) {
			return property;
		}
	}
	return null;
}

const found = findTheFour(array);
if ( found ) {
	console.log( `there is a 4 in array ${found}'` );
} else {
	console.log( "There is no 4 in the array" );
}

Isn’t that a lot easier to read? Using the includes() function for arrays, we can even safe the “inner loop”. And we do not need any labeled statement.

Conclusion

You may ask yourself why I’ve shown you this feature of JavaScript, and then advise against the usage of it. Well, there is code out there using it which you might not understand, if you have never seen labeled statements or goto in other programming languages. And I haven’t even shown you all the things you can do with it. So feel free to read the documentation on it, and maybe you do find a use case, where it can really benefit your code base, what ever case that might be.

No, I’m not going to start a video channel on this topic. But I want to show you some things about numbers, you might not have known before. The answer, however, as we all know, is 42.

Types of numbers

Let start with the very basics. You probably all know that in JavaScript, just like in many other programming languages, there are decimal number and floating-point numbers. But internally, they are all of the type Number. They are 64-bit, which should usually be enough for most code. But if you need really large numbers, you can also use BigInt to store them.

Some lesser known number types

Now that we know, that all (small) numbers are of type Number, we only know parts of the truth. We can have more than just two types. Here are the two typical ones, and some more, you might not have heard of or used in JavaScript:

42 // decimal
42.0 // float
042 // octal => 34 decimal - as digits after leading zero(s) are <= 8
099 // not octal, decimal 99, as digits after leading zero(s) are > 8
0o42 // explicit octal number - either lower- or uppercase latin "o"
0x42 // hexadecimal => 66 decimal - either lower- or uppercase latin "x"
0b101010 // binary 42, nice sequence ;) - either lower- or uppercase lat. "b"
0.042e3 // exponential number 42 - either lower- or uppercase latin "e"
42n // BigInt 42 - decimal followed by latin lower- "n" even for small number

Comparing numbers

As we have discussed earlier, except for BigInt, all numbers are the same type. Therefore, comparing the following numbers, these are the results:

42 === 42.0 // true
042 === 42 // false
0o42 === 34 // true
042 === 34 // true
099 === 99 // true
0x42 === 66 // true
42 === 0b101010 // true
42 === 0.042e3 // true
42n === 42 // false
42n == 42 // true

That last one might be (a bit) unexpected. So when comparing a BigInt to any other number, you cannot use the “strict equality operator”, since the numbers are of a different type.

If you want to find out, if a number is an integer, you can use a function from the Number object:

Number.isInteger(42) // true
Number.isInteger(42.001) // false
Number.isInteger(42.0) // true
Number.isInteger(42.000000000000001) // true

As you can see, this function will return true, if the number is an integer, or a floating-point number with a zero fraction – or a really small fraction. Unfortunately, there are no similar functions to check for other number types.

Now some fun part

Do you need some very long numbers in your code? Then you probably end up with something really hard to read. But there is a neat little trick to make them more readable:

// That's a huge number!
let rubiksCubeConfigurations = 43252003274489856000;
// As a string, it's easier to read, but this is bad code!
let sameNumberAsString = parseInt("43252003274489856000");
// How about this?
let easierToRead = 43_252_003_274_489_856_000;

That’s more readable, right? The funny thing is, that you can use an underscore at any place, just not at the beginning or end of the number, not after a leading zero, and not two underscores in a row. But many of us will probably use them like shown above.

Bonus: Formatting numbers

Now that we have seen how to make numbers more readable in code, here is a tip to make them easier to read for people from different countries. In the US, you would write a number like this: “123,456.789”. But in Germany, you would write “123.456,789”. If we look at the Number object again, we will find the toLocaleString() function, and this is how you can use it:

const number = 1234567.89;
// German
console.log(number.toLocaleString("de")); // 1,234,567.89
// English (United States)
console.log(number.toLocaleString("en-US")); // 1,234,567.89
// Englisch (India)
console.log(number.toLocaleString("en-IN")); // 12,34,567.89
// Ukrainian
console.log(number.toLocaleString("uk")); // 1 234 567,89
// Dzongkha
console.log(number.toLocaleString("dz")); // ༡༢,༣༤,༥༦༧.༨༩

Would you have known, how numbers are formatted in different languages? And in some languages, JavaScript will even output them with non latin letters. The same function can also be used to format currencies:

const costs = 123.4567;
// German with EUR
console.log(
    costs.toLocaleString("de-DE", { style: "currency", currency: "EUR" }),
); // 123,46 €

Conclusion

There are many really useful trick then dealing with numbers in JavaScript. I hope there was something for you, that will help you in a future project. I can also recommend to look at documentation of the other functions and features of the Number object.